The 2023 International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS) ‘s most recent results reveal a complex digital literacy landscape across 35 education systems internationally. The value of all major international studies assessing student performance lies in their ability to enable comparisons between countries and identify changes in achievements over time (achievement trends). We need such reviews as part of the system for assessing and ensuring quality in education, and consequently for strategic developmental planning of policies.

ICILS, an extensive international assessment conducted every five years, evaluates the digital literacy skills of eighth-grade students. This study focuses on two key areas: Computer and Information Literacy (CIL) and Computational Thinking (CT), enabling researchers to track and compare achievement trends over time. In 2023, ICILS gathered comprehensive data from over 130,000 students and more than 60,000 teachers, offering a valuable glimpse into the state of digital literacy education:

• Computer and Information Literacy (CIL) refers to students’ abilities to access, evaluate, and use digital information productively. ICILS emphasizes the higher-order thinking skills that students require to identify and share online information that is reliable and trustworthy.
• Computational Thinking (CT) skills relate to students’ capacities to conceptualize problems and formulate solutions in ways that a computer might implement. Students are assessed on their ability to describe and solve problems through a visual coding environment, but knowledge of a coding language is not required for the ICILS assessments. CT assessment was an optional module of ICILS 2023 in which 24 education systems participated (source: ICILS 2023-International-Press-Release.pdf).

ICILS 2023 Key International Findings and Slovenian Findings

The study involved students (eighth graders), teachers who teach 8th-grade classes in selected schools, principals of these schools, and ICT coordinators. In Slovenia, data were collected from: 169 schools (170 8th-grade classes), 161 principals (from sampled schools), 168 ICT coordinators, 2,337 8th-grade teachers, and 3,318 8th-grade students.

Across all countries, the ICILS 2023 results reveal that:

• A little more than half of all students are still operating below the crucial proficiency Level 2 for Computer and Information Literacy (CIL), indicating only a basic or sub-basic understanding.
• On average, 24% of students fall below Level 1, demonstrating minimal CIL skills, while 27% are at Level 1, only capable of performing simple computer tasks under direct instruction. These students lack the autonomy needed to navigate digital environments effectively.
• Furthermore, on average, only 34% of students have reached Level 2, considered a pivotal threshold for independent computer use. The European Commission has set an ambitious target for EU countries: to reduce the proportion of students below Level 2 to 15% by 2030. However, no country participating in ICILS 2023 has met this target yet. Slovenia stands out among the furthest from this benchmark, with 51% of its students not reaching Level 2 proficiency.
• Additionally, only 14% of students across countries have achieved Level 3 proficiency, indicating effective independence in digital literacy, and just 1% have reached the advanced Level 4. Alarmingly, no country has shown a statistically significant increase in the number of students performing at Level 2 or above between the 2013 and 2023 cycles.

The research findings reveal that female students outperform male students in CIL across countries. In 28 participating countries, female students achieved statistically significantly higher scores in CIL, with no country reporting higher performance than male students. However, there was no observed difference in the general ICT self-efficacy between female and male students, suggesting that both genders have similar confidence in their technological skills.

A similar trend was seen in CT, where female students outperformed males both at the international average and in nearly all individual countries, including Slovenia. However, in Slovenia, the gender gap in CT is notably larger than the international average. On average, male students slightly outperform female students in CT achievement, although the difference is minimal. Male students scored higher than female students in just six of the participating education systems, with no significant differences observed in the others. While the global average shows a small advantage for male students, most individual countries, including Slovenia, show no significant gender differences in CT achievement.

The digital divide continues to be a significant factor influencing achievement in both CIL and CT.:

• Students from higher socioeconomic status (SES) groups generally demonstrate higher levels of achievement in both CIL and CT across all participating countries.
• Additionally, students who have access to a computer at home for schoolwork and those who experience fewer internet disruptions tend to perform better in both CIL and CT in most participating countries.
• Similarly, students from higher SES backgrounds—characterized by factors such as parental education, occupation, and the number of books at home—show higher achievement levels in CIL and CT.

Students’ use of ICT devices on school days is primarily for non-school-related purposes. They are extensive users of technology outside of school. On average, 75% of students use ICT for non-school-related activities on school days. 81% of students in Slovenia report using ICT for non-school purposes outside of school, which is above the ICILS average of 75%.

Productivity software tools are used far more frequently in classrooms than more innovative digital resources. ICILS 2023 reported similar findings to previous cycles regarding the use of ICT resources in classrooms. Students most reported using productivity software, such as word processors, presentation software, and computer-based information sources. These tools are also the ones most frequently available to both teachers and students in schools.

Students report learning about internet-related topics more frequently outside of school than in school. On average, a higher percentage of students believe they are learning about issues such as using the internet to find information and identifying scam messages outside of school rather than during school hours. While CIL and CT are generally well-represented in the curricula of participating education systems, these subjects are more commonly taught as compulsory at the secondary level. Furthermore, there is typically less emphasis on assessing skills in these areas compared to other subjects.

In Slovenia, 44% of students report that their screen time is restricted by their parents or guardians on school days, which is below the ICILS average of 66%. However, this is higher than in some Scandinavian countries, as well as Austria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Serbia, and Portugal. On weekends, holidays, and other non-school days, 64% of students report screen time restrictions, which is below the ICILS average of 72%. This is still higher than in many countries with similar profiles, though not in all cases. Within the international average, students without screen time restrictions tend to achieve higher results compared to those with restrictions. However, in Slovenia, there is no significant difference in achievement between these two groups.

For Slovenia, which is participating in this study for the second time, the results show a decline in student performance in both CIL and a below-average achievement in CT compared to the international average. However, these results are closely linked to socioeconomic status, a trend observed not only in Slovenia but globally. One of the more positive outcomes for Slovenia is that the differences between schools within the country are very small, although there are significant disparities among students. Furthermore, the data indicates that Slovenian schools are well-equipped in terms of resources.

How can we connect the ICILS research results with the DIGITAL FIRST project?

The DIGITAL FIRST project aims to develop a new, functionalist approach to teaching computer science and informatics in primary and secondary schools, with a focus on the role of digital literacy and computing competencies as the ultimate goal of the learning process. For many years, foreign language teaching was heavily influenced by the structuralist approach, which emphasized teaching grammar through the study of sentence structure and language mechanics. Students learned how to conjugate verbs and construct sentences but often struggled to engage in actual conversations with this limited knowledge. In the 1980s, the limitations of this approach became apparent, leading to a shift towards a functionalist approach, which prioritizes practical language use and meaningful sentence construction. Research shows that this shift has not only made students more proficient in using foreign languages but also more engaged and satisfied with their language learning.

A similar transformation is now needed in the teaching of computer science and informatics across Europe. Most primary and secondary schools still follow a structuralist approach, where students learn about the functioning of computers, the rules of using information technology, and how to construct programming commands. Students often struggle to find real-world applications for the knowledge they acquire, leading to a lack of computing and informatics skills that extend beyond the classroom. They may learn to program or use software, but these skills often remain limited to completing school assignments.

The ICILS task examples show that students’ knowledge of computer and information literacy and computational thinking is assessed in ways that reflect elements of the functionalist approach explored in the DIGITAL FIRST project. Furthermore, the ICILS results highlight the fact that, despite growing up with digital technology, students are not “digital natives”—a key premise of the DIGITAL FIRST project. Therefore, the ICILS results provide additional motivation to explore the functionalist approach to teaching computer science and informatics.